then akin to the fraudulent or counterfeit pursuits (κιβδήλοις).221 The retailers in well-ordered states are generally the weakest men, who are unable to undertake other work.222 The rulers in the Republic must keep themselves entirely free from the trammels of trade, lest they become wolves instead of shepherds,223 though Plato is grappling here with a very real problem that still faces us—how to prevent graft among public servants.224
In the Laws, retail trade is entirely prohibited to citizens,225 and permitted only to metics and strangers,226 and, indeed, only to those whose corruption will be of least injury to the state.227 These aliens are not to be permitted to gain overmuch wealth,228 and they must depart from the state, after twenty years’ residence, with all their belongings.229 Retail trade, even in their hands, must be strictly limited to the demands of the state,230 and confined to the market-place for the sake of publicity.231 All exchange must be honest, dealing with unadulterated products (ἀκίβδηλον).232 There shall be no dickering over sales, but only one price shall be set upon goods each day. If this is not accepted, the goods must be removed from sale until the following day.233 If possible, the executors of the laws should try to fix a just schedule of prices, to allow of moderate gain, and should see that this is observed by the retailers.234 As a climax to all these precautions, Plato would have the rulers take pains to devise means whereby the retailers shall not degenerate into unbridled shamelessness and meanness of soul.235 Under such limitations, he has faint hopes that retail trade may be freed of its stigma, so as to do least harm to those who pursue it, and to benefit the whole state.236
It need not be observed that this attitude of Plato toward trade and commerce is alien to the spirit of economic progress, and that no advanced civilization could be developed on such a basis. His profuse