their words; by which they register for their conception, that which they never conceived, and so deceive themselves. Secondly, when they use words metaphorically; that is, in other sense than that they are ordained for; and thereby deceive others. Thirdly, by words, when they declare that to be their will, which is not. Fourthly, when they use them to grieve one another; for seeing Nature hath armed living creatures, some with teeth, some with horns, and some with hands, to grieve an enemy, it is but an abuse of speech, to grieve him with the tongue, unless it be one whom we are obliged to govern; and then it is not to grieve, but to correct and amend.
The manner how speech serveth to the remembrance of the consequence of causes and effects, consisteth in the imposing of “names,” and the “connection” of them.
Of names, some are “proper,” and singular to one only thing, as “Peter,” “John,” “this man,” “this tree”; and some are “common” to many things, “man,” “horse,” “tree”; every of which, though but one name, is nevertheless the name of divers particular things; in respect of all which together, it is called an “universal”; there being nothing in the world universal but names; for the things named are every one of them individual and singular.
One universal name is imposed on many things, for their similitude in some quality, or other accident; and whereas a proper name bringeth to mind one thing only, universals recall any one of those many.
And of names universal, some are of more, and some of less extent; the larger comprehending the less large; and some again of equal extent, comprehending each other reciprocally. As for example: the name “body” is of larger signification than the word “man,” and comprehendeth it; and the names “man” and “rational,” are of equal extent, comprehending mutually one another. But here we must take