battle. But the frequency of wars often made other leaders necessary besides this hereditary chief, and these naturally began to have predominance over the undistinguished kinsmen. Meantime the power of production was ever on the increase: stone tools gave place first to bronze, and then to iron. The nomad 29 tribes began to settle when they discovered the art of producing grain from the original wild grasses, and supplemented their milk and flesh diet with meal and bread; wealth began to increase beyond the immediate needs of a limited population amidst limitless natural resources.
Since therefore there was an excess of wealth over bare necessity, its distribution began to be unequal, and the hereditary and elected leaders were allowed to consume more than the general average of that wealth, and class society began to appear, its first representatives being the chief and his immediate household.
By this time the older nomadic tribes had turned into settled communities living in villages, and surrounded by tillage, the whole enclosed by a stockade. In mountainous or hilly countries this was dominated by a fortress on an elevation, called the Bury or Burg. And in this burg and stockaded village we have the first element of the City.
The religion of Barbarism was ancestor-worship coupled with universal animism, ─that is to say, the conception of every thing in the world, animate and inanimate, 30 as a being endowed with human will and consciousness. The meeting point of these two elements of barbaric religion was the totem of the group, which was usually an animal or plant to which special religious honours were paid, and which was something more than a mere symbol of the ancestor, and was in fact looked upon almost as being the ancestor himself. It is the more difficult for us moderns to conceive of the state of mind that produced this notion, because we are so much further removed from nature than was primitive man; the development of the faculty of reflection has blunted