definition that action is equal to reaction.
But then, it will be said, these unverifiable principles are absolutely devoid of any significance; experiment can not contradict them; but they can teach us nothing useful; then what is the use of studying dynamics?
This over-hasty condemnation would be unjust. There is not in nature any system perfectly isolated, perfectly removed from all external action; but there are systems almost isolated.
If such a system be observed, one may study not only the relative motion of its various parts one in reference to another, but also the motion of its center of gravity in reference to the other parts of the universe. We ascertain then that the motion of this center of gravity is almost rectilinear and uniform, in conformity with Newton's third law.
That is an experimental truth, but it can not be invalidated by experience; in fact, what would a more precise experiment teach us? It would teach us that the law was only almost true; but that we knew already.
We can now understand how experience has been able to serve as basis for the principles of mechanics and yet will never be able to contradict them.
Anthropomorphic Mechanics.—"Kirchhoff," it will be said, "has only acted in obedience to the general tendency of mathematicians toward nominalism; from this his ability as a physicist has not saved him. He wanted a definition of force, and he took for it the first proposition that presented itself; but we need no definition of force: the idea of force is primitive, irreducible, indefinable; we all know what it is, we have a direct intuition of it. This direct intuition comes from the notion of effort, which is familiar to us from infancy."
But first, even though this direct intuition made known