the sum of the angles will be precisely and absolutely equal to twice as many right-angles as the figure has sides, less by four right-angles. In such cases, the deductive proof is absolute and complete; empirical verification can at the most guard against accidental oversights.
There is a second class of geometrical truths which can only be proved by approximation; but, as the mind sees no reason why that approximation should not always go on, we arrive at complete conviction. We thus learn that the surface of a sphere is equal exactly to two-thirds of the whole surface of the circumscribing cylinder, or to four times the area of the generating circle. The area of a parabola is exactly two-thirds of that of the circumscribing parallelogram. The area of the cycloid is exactly three times that of the generating circle. These are truths that we could never ascertain, nor even verify by observation; for any finite amount of difference, less than what the senses can discern, would falsify them.
There are geometrical relations again which we cannot assign exactly, but can carry to any desirable degree of approximation. The ratio of the circumference to the diameter of a circle is that of 3·14159265358979323846.... to 1, and the approximation may be carried to any extent by the expenditure of sufficient labour. Mr. W. Shanks has given the value of this natural constant, known as π, to the extent of 707 places of decimals.15 Some years since, I amused myself by trying how near I could get to this ratio, by the careful use of compasses, and I did not come nearer than 1 part in 540. We might imagine measurements so accurately executed as to give us eight or ten places correctly. But the power of the hands and senses must soon stop, whereas the mental powers of deductive reasoning can proceed to an unlimited degree of approximation. Geometrical truths, then, are incapable of verification; and, if so, they cannot even be learnt by observation. How can I have learnt by observation a proposition of which I cannot even prove the truth by observation, when I am in possession of it? All that observation or empirical trial can do is to suggest propositions, of which the truth may afterwards be proved deductively.