conclusion is
As it will often be necessary to refer to a conclusion of this kind I shall call it, as is usual, the Contrapositive Proposition of the original. The reader need hardly be cautioned to observe that from all A’s are B’s it does not follow that all not-A’s are not-B’s. For by the Law of Duality we have
and it will not be found possible to make any substitution in this by our original premise A = AB. It still remains doubtful, therefore, whether not-metal is element or not-element.
The proof of the Contrapositive Proposition given above is exactly the same as that which Euclid applies in the case of geometrical notions. De Morgan describes Euclid’s process as follows4:—“From every not-B is not-A he produces Every A is B, thus: If it be possible, let this A be not-B, but every not-B is not-A, therefore this A is not-A, which is absurd: whence every A is B.” Now De Morgan thinks that this proof is entirely needless, because common logic gives the inference without the use of any geometrical reasoning. I conceive however that logic gives the inference only by an indirect process. De Morgan claims “to see identity in Every A is B and every not-B is not-A, by a process of thought prior to syllogism.” Whether prior to syllogism or not, I claim that it is not prior to the laws of thought and the process of substitutive inference, by which it may be undoubtedly demonstrated.
Employment of the Contrapositive Proposition.
We can frequently employ the contrapositive form of a proposition by the method of substitution; and certain moods of the ancient syllogism, which we have hitherto passed over, may thus be satisfactorily comprehended in our system. Take for instance the following syllogism in the mood Camestres:—
Let us take
The premises are of the forms
| A = A c | (1) |
|---|---|
| B = BC | (2) |
Now, by the process of contraposition we obtain from the second premise
and we can substitute this expression for c in (1), obtaining
or “Whales are not true fish, not respiring water.”
The mood Cesare does not really differ from Camestres except in the order of the premises, and it could be exhibited in an exactly similar manner.
The mood Baroko gave much trouble to the old logicians, who could not reduce it to the first figure in the same manner as the other moods, and were obliged to invent, specially for it and for Bokardo, a method of Indirect Reduction closely analogous to the indirect proof of Euclid. Now these moods require no exceptional treatment in this system. Let us