its solutions at the ordinary temperature. When a solution of the same salt deposits crystals at a low temperature, about -20°, then these crystals contain 71·8 parts of water per 28·2 parts of anhydrous salt. Further, the crystals are obtained together with ice, and are left behind when it melts. If ordinary soda, with 62·9 p.c. of water, be cautiously melted in its own water of crystallisation, there remains a salt, in a solid state, containing only 14·5 p.c. of water, and a liquid is obtained which contains the solution of a salt which separates out crystals at 34°, which contain 46 p.c. of water and do not effloresce in air. Lastly, if a supersaturated solution of soda be prepared, then at temperatures below 8° it deposits crystals containing 54·3 p.c. of water. Thus as many as five compounds of anhydrous soda with water are known; and they are dissimilar in their properties and crystalline form, and even in their solubility. It is to be observed that the greatest amount of water in the crystals corresponds with a temperature of -20°, and the smallest to the highest temperature. There is apparently no relation between the above quantities of water and the salts, but this is only because in each case the amount of water and anhydrous salt was given in percentages; but if it be calculated for one and the same quantity of anhydrous salt, or of water, a great regularity will be observed in the amounts of the component parts in all these compounds. It appears that for 106 parts of anhydrous salt in the crystals separated out at -20° there are 270 parts of water; in the crystals obtained at 15° there are 180 parts of water; in the crystals obtained from a supersaturated solution 126 parts, in the crystals which separate out at 34°, 90 parts, and the crystals with the smallest amount of water, 18 parts. On comparing these quantities of water it may easily be seen that they are in simple proportion to each other, for they are all divisible by 18, and are in the ratio 15 : 10 : 7 : 5 : 1. Naturally, direct experiment, however carefully it be conducted, is hampered with errors, but taking these unavoidable experimental errors into consideration, it will be seen that for a given quantity of an anhydrous substance there occur, in several of its compounds with water, quantities of water which are in very simple multiple proportion. This is observed in, and is common to, all definite chemical compounds. This rule is called the law of multiple proportions . It was discovered by Dalton, and will be evolved in further detail subsequently in this work. For the present we will only state that the law of definite composition enables the composition of substances to be expressed by formulæ, and the law of multiple proportions permits the application of whole numbers as coefficients of the symbols of the elements in these formulæ. Thus the formula Na 2 CO 3 ,10H 2 O shows directly that in this crystallo-hydrate there are 180 parts of water to 106 parts by weight of the anhydrous salt, because the formula of soda, Na 2 CO 3 , directly answers to a weight of 106, and the formula of water to 18 parts, by weight, which are here taken 10 times.
In the above examples of the combinations of water, we saw the gradually increasing intensity of the bond between water and a substance with which it forms a homogeneous compound. There is a series of such compounds with water, in which the water is held with very great force, and is only given up at a very high temperature, and sometimes cannot be separated by any degree of heat without the entire decomposition of the substance. In these compounds there is generally no outward sign whatever of their containing water. A perfectly new substance is formed from an anhydrous substance and water, in which sometimes the properties of neither one nor the other substance are observable. In the majority of cases, a considerable amount of heat is evolved in the formation of such compounds with water. Sometimes the heat evolved is so intense that a red heat is produced and light is emitted. It is hardly to be wondered at, after this, that stable compounds are formed by such a combination. Their decomposition requires great heat; a large amount of work is necessary to separate them into their component parts. All such compounds are definite, and, generally, completely and clearly definite. The number of such definite compounds with water or hydrates, in the narrow sense of the word, is generally inconsiderable for each anhydrous substance; in the greater number