While the inner cells of the honey-comb are symmetrically situated, sharing with their neighbours in equally distributed pressures or tensions, and therefore all tending with great accuracy {314} to identity of form, the case is obviously different with the cells at the borders of the system. So it is, in like manner, with our froth of soap-bubbles. The bubbles, or cells, in the interior of the mass are all alike in general character, and if they be equal in size are alike in every respect: their sides are uniformly flattened19, and tend to meet at equal angles of 120ô¯. But the bubbles which constitute the outer layer retain their spherical surfaces, which however still tend to meet the partition-walls connected with them at constant angles of 120ô¯. This outer layer of bubbles, which forms the surface of our froth, constitutes after a fashion what we should call in botany an ãepidermalã layer. But in our froth of soap-bubbles we have, as a rule, the same kind of contact (that is to say, contact with air) both within and without the bubbles; while in our living cell, the outer wall of the epidermal cell is exposed to air on the one side, but is in contact with the
protoplasm of the cell on the other: and this involves a difference of tensions, so that the outer walls and their adjacent partitions are no longer likely to meet at equal angles of 120ô¯. Moreover, a chemical change, due for instance to oxidation or possibly also to adsorption, is very likely to affect the external wall, and may tend to its consolidation; and this process, as we have seen, is tantamount to a large increase, and at the same time an equalisation, of tension in that outer wall, and will lead the adjacent partitions to impinge upon it at angles more and more nearly approximating to 90ô¯: the bubble-like, or spherical, surfaces of the individual cells being more and more flattened in consequence. Lastly, the chemical changes which affect the outer walls of the superficial cells may extend, in greater or less degree, to their inner walls also: with the result that these {315} cells will tend to become more or less rectangular throughout, and will cease to dovetail into the interstices of the next subjacent layer. These then are the general characters which we recognise in an epidermis; and we perceive that the fundamental character of an epidermis simply is that it lies on the outside, and that its main physical charôÙacôÙterisôÙtics follow, as a matter of course, from the position which it occupies and from the various consequences which that situation entails. We have however by no means exhausted the subject in this short account; for the botanist is accustomed to draw a sharp distinction between a true epidermis and what is called epidermal tissue. The latter, which is found in such a sea-weed as Laminaria and in very many other cryptogamic plants, consists, as in the hypothetical case we have described, of a more or less simple and direct modification of the general or fundamental tissue. But a ãtrue epidermis,ã such as we have it in the higher plants, is something with a long morphological history, something which has been laid down or differentiated in an early stage of the plantãs growth, and which afterwards retains its separate and independent character. We shall see presently that a physical reason is again at hand to account, under certain circumstances, for the early partitioning off, from a mass of embryonic tissue, of an outer layer of cells which from their first appearance are marked off from the rest by their rectangular and flattened form.